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Ying-Hua Xuan	5 Articles
Microarray Analysis of Differentially Expressed Genes between Cysts and Trophozoites of Acanthamoeba castellanii Eun-Kyung Moon, Ying-Hua Xuan, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong, Hyun-Hee Kong Korean J Parasitol 2011;49(4):341-347. Published online December 16, 2011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2011.49.4.341 Abstract PDF Acanthamoeba infection is difficult to treat because of the resistance property of Acanthamoeba cyst against the host immune system, diverse antibiotics, and therapeutic agents. To identify encystation mediating factors of Acanthamoeba, we compared the transcription profile between cysts and trophozoites using microarray analysis. The DNA chip was composed of 12,544 genes based on expressed sequence tag (EST) from an Acanthamoeba ESTs database (DB) constructed in our laboratory, genetic information of Acanthamoeba from TBest DB, and all of Acanthamoeba related genes registered in the NCBI. Microarray analysis indicated that 701 genes showed higher expression than 2 folds in cysts than in trophozoites, and 859 genes were less expressed in cysts than in trophozoites. The results of real-time PCR analysis of randomly selected 9 genes of which expression was increased during cyst formation were coincided well with the microarray results. Eukaryotic orthologous groups (KOG) analysis showed an increment in T article (signal transduction mechanisms) and O article (posttranslational modification, protein turnover, and chaperones) whereas significant decrement of C article (energy production and conversion) during cyst formation. Especially, cystein proteinases showed high expression changes (282 folds) with significant increases in real-time PCR, suggesting a pivotal role of this proteinase in the cyst formation of Acanthamoeba. The present study provides important clues for the identification and characterization of encystation mediating factors of Acanthamoeba. Citations Citations to this article as recorded by DNA methylation modification: Dawn of research on cornea-related diseases Quanhao Pan, Xiaoning Ge, Di Wang, Yuxi He Life Sciences.2025; 376: 123757. CrossRef Identification and characterization of a DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps) homologue in Acanthamoeba: Implications for encystment-induced DNA protection Seunghyeok Bang, So-Young Joo, Ja Moon Aung, Je Chul Lee, Byoung-Kuk Na, Yeonchul Hong, Minsang Shin Acta Tropica.2025; 271: 107837. CrossRef Microarray-based characterization of airway inflammation induced by environmental Acanthamoeba exposure versus the ovalbumin-alum model Shin Ae Kang, Hak Sun Yu Parasites, Hosts and Diseases.2025; 63(4): 327. CrossRef Proteases of Acanthamoeba Behroz Mahdavi Poor, Jalil Rashedi, Vahid Asgharzadeh, Amirali Mirmazhary, Nazila Gheitarani Parasitology Research.2024;[Epub] CrossRef Biological characteristics and pathogenicity of Acanthamoeba Yuehua Wang, Linzhe Jiang, Yitong Zhao, Xiaohong Ju, Le Wang, Liang Jin, Ryan D. Fine, Mingguang Li Frontiers in Microbiology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef mRNA Sequencing Reveals Upregulation of Glutathione S-Transferase Genes during Acanthamoeba Encystation Alvaro de Obeso Fernández del Valle, Christian Quintus Scheckhuber, David Armando Chavaro-Pérez, Erandi Ortega-Barragán, Sutherland K. Maciver Microorganisms.2023; 11(4): 992. CrossRef Identification of an Antimicrobial Protease from Acanthamoeba via a Novel Zymogram Alvaro de Obeso Fernández del Valle, Luis Javier Melgoza-Ramírez, María Fernanda Esqueda Hernández, Alfonso David Rios-Pérez, Sutherland K. Maciver Processes.2023; 11(9): 2620. CrossRef Comparative analysis of differentially expressed genes in Acanthamoeba after ingestion of Legionella pneumophila and Escherichia coli Eun-Kyung Moon, Min-Jeong Kim, Hae-Ahm Lee, Fu-Shi Quan, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2022; 232: 108188. CrossRef Anaerobic ATP synthesis pathways and inorganic phosphate transport and their possible roles in encystment in Acanthamoeba castellanii Luiz Fernando Carvalho‐Kelly, Claudia Fernanda Dick, Nathalia Rocco‐Machado, André Luiz Gomes‐Vieira, Lisvane Paes‐Vieira, José Roberto Meyer‐Fernandes Cell Biology International.2022; 46(8): 1288. CrossRef Acanthamoeba castellanii exhibits intron retention during encystment Alvaro de Obeso Fernández del Valle, Jesús Gómez-Montalvo, Sutherland K. Maciver Parasitology Research.2022; 121(9): 2615. CrossRef A Novel Cysteine Protease Inhibitor of Naegleria fowleri That Is Specifically Expressed during Encystation and at Mature Cysts Hương Giang Lê, A-Jeong Ham, Jung-Mi Kang, Tuấn Cường Võ, Haung Naw, Hae-Jin Sohn, Ho-Joon Shin, Byoung-Kuk Na Pathogens.2021; 10(4): 388. CrossRef The role of the Acanthamoeba castellanii Sir2-like protein in the growth and encystation of Acanthamoeba So-Young Joo, Ja Moon Aung, Minsang Shin, Eun-Kyung Moon, Hyun-Hee Kong, Youn-Kyoung Goo, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong Parasites & Vectors.2020;[Epub] CrossRef Cytopathic Change and Inflammatory Response of Human Corneal Epithelial Cells Induced by Acanthamoeba castellanii Trophozoites and Cysts Hae-Jin Sohn, Ga-Eun Seo, Jae-Ho Lee, A-Jeong Ham, Young-Hwan Oh, Heekyoung Kang, Ho-Joon Shin The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2019; 57(3): 217. CrossRef Soil protists: a fertile frontier in soil biology research Stefan Geisen, Edward A D Mitchell, Sina Adl, Michael Bonkowski, Micah Dunthorn, Flemming Ekelund, Leonardo D Fernández, Alexandre Jousset, Valentyna Krashevska, David Singer, Frederick W Spiegel, Julia Walochnik, Enrique Lara FEMS Microbiology Reviews.2018; 42(3): 293. CrossRef Encystation: the most prevalent and underinvestigated differentiation pathway of eukaryotes Pauline Schaap, Christina Schilde Microbiology.2018; 164(5): 727. CrossRef DNA Methylation of Gene Expression in Acanthamoeba castellanii Encystation Eun-Kyung Moon, Yeonchul Hong, Hae-Ahm Lee, Fu-Shi Quan, Hyun-Hee Kong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2017; 55(2): 115. CrossRef Identification and Characterization of Protein Arginine Methyltransferase 1 in Acanthamoeba castellanii Eun-Kyung Moon, Hyun-Hee Kong, Yeonchul Hong, Hae-Ahm Lee, Fu-Shi Quan The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2017; 55(2): 109. CrossRef Essential Role for an M17 Leucine Aminopeptidase in Encystation of Acanthamoeba castellanii Yu-Ran Lee, Byoung-Kuk Na, Eun-Kyung Moon, Su-Min Song, So-Young Joo, Hyun-Hee Kong, Youn-Kyoung Goo, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong, Patricia Talamas-Rohana PLOS ONE.2015; 10(6): e0129884. CrossRef Down-Regulation of Cellulose Synthase Inhibits the Formation of Endocysts in Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Yeonchul Hong, Dong-Il Chung, Youn-Kyoung Goo, Hyun-Hee Kong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2014; 52(2): 131. CrossRef Microarray and KOG analysis of Acanthamoeba healyi genes up-regulated by mouse-brain passage Eun-Kyung Moon, Ying-Hua Xuan, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2014; 143: 69. CrossRef Proteomic profiling of the infective trophozoite stage of Acanthamoeba polyphaga Karin Silva Caumo, Karina Mariante Monteiro, Thiely Rodrigues Ott, Vinicius José Maschio, Glauber Wagner, Henrique Bunselmeyer Ferreira, Marilise Brittes Rott Acta Tropica.2014; 140: 166. CrossRef Cysteine Protease Inhibitor (AcStefin) Is Required for Complete Cyst Formation of Acanthamoeba Jung-Yub Lee, Su-Min Song, Eun-Kyung Moon, Yu-Ran Lee, Bijay Kumar Jha, Dinzouna-Boutamba Sylvatrie Danne, Hee-Jae Cha, Hak Sun Yu, Hyun-Hee Kong, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong Eukaryotic Cell.2013; 12(4): 567. CrossRef Cysteine protease involving in autophagosomal degradation of mitochondria during encystation of Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Yeonchul Hong, Dong-Il Chung, Hyun-Hee Kong Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology.2012; 185(2): 121. CrossRef Short-Cut Pathway to Synthesize Cellulose of Encysting Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Hyun-Hee Kong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2012; 50(4): 361. CrossRef Protein kinase C signaling molecules regulate encystation of Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2012; 132(4): 524. CrossRef 9,832 View 96 Download Crossref Endosymbionts of Acanthamoeba Isolated from Domestic Tap Water in Korea Seon Hee Choi, Min Kyoung Cho, Soon Cheol Ahn, Ji Eun Lee, Jong Soo Lee, Dong-Hee Kim, Ying-Hua Xuan, Yeon Chul Hong, Hyun Hee Kong, Dong Il Chung, Hak Sun Yu Korean J Parasitol 2009;47(4):337-344. Published online December 1, 2009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2009.47.4.337 Abstract PDF In a previous study, we reported our discovery of Acanthamoeba contamination in domestic tap water; in that study, we determined that some Acanthamoeba strains harbor endosymbiotic bacteria, via our molecular characterization by mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism (Mt DNA RFLP). Five (29.4%) among 17 Acanthamoeba isolates contained endosymbionts in their cytoplasm, as demonstrated via orcein staining. In order to estimate their pathogenicity, we conducted a genetic characterization of the endosymbionts in Acanthamoeba isolated from domestic tap water via 16S rDNA sequencing. The endosymbionts of Acanthamoeba sp. KA/WP3 and KA/WP4 evidenced the highest level of similarity, at 97% of the recently published 16S rDNA sequence of the bacterium, Candidatus Amoebophilus asiaticus. The endosymbionts of Acanthamoeba sp. KA/WP8 and KA/WP12 shared a 97% sequence similarity with each other, and were also highly similar to Candidatus Odyssella thessalonicensis, a member of the α-proteobacteria. The endosymbiont of Acanthamoeba sp. KA/WP9 exhibits a high degree of similarity (85-95%) with genus Methylophilus, which is not yet known to harbor any endosymbionts. This is the first report, to the best of our knowledge, to show that Methylophilus spp. can live in the cytoplasm of Acanthamoeba. Citations Citations to this article as recorded by An Evolutionary-Focused Review of the Holosporales (Alphaproteobacteria): Diversity, Host Interactions, and Taxonomic Re-ranking as Holosporineae Subord. Nov Michele Castelli, Giulio Petroni Microbial Ecology.2025;[Epub] CrossRef Zooming in on the intracellular microbiome composition of bacterivorous Acanthamoeba isolates Binod Rayamajhee, Mark Willcox, Savitri Sharma, Ronnie Mooney, Constantinos Petsoglou, Paul R Badenoch, Samendra Sherchan, Fiona L Henriquez, Nicole Carnt ISME Communications.2024;[Epub] CrossRef Acanthamoeba species isolated from marine water in Malaysia exhibit distinct genotypes and variable physiological properties Rosnani Hanim Mohd Hussain, Mohamed Kamel Abdul Ghani, Naveed Ahmed Khan, Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui, Tengku Shahrul Anuar Journal of Water and Health.2022; 20(1): 54. CrossRef The life cycle-dependent transcriptional profile of the obligate intracellular amoeba symbiontAmoebophilus asiaticus E Selberherr, T Penz, L König, B Conrady, A Siegl, M Horn, S Schmitz-Esser FEMS Microbiology Ecology.2022;[Epub] CrossRef A Systematic Review of Intracellular Microorganisms within Acanthamoeba to Understand Potential Impact for Infection Binod Rayamajhee, Dinesh Subedi, Hari Kumar Peguda, Mark Duncan Willcox, Fiona L. Henriquez, Nicole Carnt Pathogens.2021; 10(2): 225. CrossRef A comparative analysis of drinking water employing metagenomics Kyle D. Brumfield, Nur A. Hasan, Menu B. Leddy, Joseph A. Cotruvo, Shah M. Rashed, Rita R. Colwell, Anwar Huq, Christopher Staley PLOS ONE.2020; 15(4): e0231210. CrossRef Detection of bacterial endosymbionts in freshwater crustaceans: the applicability of non-degenerate primers to amplify the bacterial 16S rRNA gene Monika Mioduchowska, Michał Jan Czyż, Bartłomiej Gołdyn, Adrianna Kilikowska, Tadeusz Namiotko, Tom Pinceel, Małgorzata Łaciak, Jerzy Sell PeerJ.2018; 6: e6039. CrossRef Interactive effects of temperature, organic carbon, and pipe material on microbiota composition and Legionella pneumophila in hot water plumbing systems Caitlin R. Proctor, Dongjuan Dai, Marc A. Edwards, Amy Pruden Microbiome.2017;[Epub] CrossRef Isolation and Genotyping of Acanthamoeba spp. as Neglected Parasites in North of Iran Azar Shokri, Shahabeddin Sarvi, Ahmad Daryani, Mehdi Sharif The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2016; 54(4): 447. CrossRef Identification of Paenibacillus as a Symbiont in Acanthamoeba Vinicius José Maschio, Gertrudes Corção, Francielle Bücker, Karin Caumo, Marilise Brittes Rott Current Microbiology.2015; 71(3): 415. CrossRef Ankyrin‐repeat proteins from sponge symbionts modulate amoebal phagocytosis Mary T. H. D. Nguyen, Michael Liu, Torsten Thomas Molecular Ecology.2014; 23(6): 1635. CrossRef Infectious ophthalmology, a neglected field in clinical microbiology M. Drancourt Clinical Microbiology and Infection.2013; 19(3): 209. CrossRef Isolation and molecular characterization of potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba genotypes from diverse water resources including household drinking water from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Tania Tanveer, Abdul Hameed, Ambreen Gul Muazzam, Suk-Yul Jung, Asma Gul, Abdul Matin Parasitology Research.2013; 112(8): 2925. CrossRef Vahlkampfia sp: Structural observations of cultured trophozoites Arturo González-Robles, Lizbeth Salazar-Villatoro, Mónica González-Lázaro, Maritza Omaña-Molina, Adolfo Martínez-Palomo Experimental Parasitology.2012; 130(1): 86. CrossRef Diversity of bacteria and mycobacteria in biofilms of two urban drinking water distribution systems Ruyin Liu, Zhisheng Yu, Hongxun Zhang, Min Yang, Baoyou Shi, Xinchun Liu Canadian Journal of Microbiology.2012; 58(3): 261. CrossRef A bacterial genome in transition - an exceptional enrichment of IS elements but lack of evidence for recent transposition in the symbiont Amoebophilus asiaticus Stephan Schmitz-Esser, Thomas Penz, Anja Spang, Matthias Horn BMC Evolutionary Biology.2011;[Epub] CrossRef 11,714 View 123 Download Crossref Construction of EST Database for Comparative Gene Studies of Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Joung-Ok Kim, Ying-Hua Xuan, Young-Sun Yun, Se Won Kang, Yong Seok Lee, Tae-In Ahn, Yeon-Chul Hong, Dong-Il Chung, Hyun-Hee Kong Korean J Parasitol 2009;47(2):103-107. Published online May 26, 2009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2009.47.2.103 Abstract PDF The genus Acanthamoeba can cause severe infections such as granulomatous amebic encephalitis and amebic keratitis in humans. However, little genomic information of Acanthamoeba has been reported. Here, we constructed Acanthamoeba expressed sequence tags (EST) database (Acanthamoeba EST DB) derived from our 4 kinds of Acanthamoeba cDNA library. The Acanthamoeba EST DB contains 3,897 EST generated from amebae under various conditions of long term in vitro culture, mouse brain passage, or encystation, and downloaded data of Acanthamoeba from National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and Taxonomically Broad EST Database (TBestDB). The almost reported cDNA/genomic sequences of Acanthamoeba provide stand alone BLAST system with nucleotide (BLAST NT) and amino acid (BLAST AA) sequence database. In BLAST results, each gene links for the significant information including sequence data, gene orthology annotations, relevant references, and a BlastX result. This is the first attempt for construction of Acanthamoeba database with genes expressed in diverse conditions. These data were integrated into a database (http://www.amoeba.or.kr). Citations Citations to this article as recorded by High-efficiency transfection of Acanthamoeba castellanii using a cationic polymer Anaísa B. Moreno, Viktor Ek, Jens Eriksson, Mikael E. Sellin, Lionel Guy Cell Reports Methods.2026; : 101269. CrossRef Recombinant protein expression in Acanthamoeba castellanii Pooja Salunke, Kiran Kondabagil, Yogesh A. Karpe Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology.2025;[Epub] CrossRef Biological characteristics and pathogenicity of Acanthamoeba Yuehua Wang, Linzhe Jiang, Yitong Zhao, Xiaohong Ju, Le Wang, Liang Jin, Ryan D. Fine, Mingguang Li Frontiers in Microbiology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef Autophagy protein 12 plays an essential role in Acanthamoeba encystation So-Hee Kim, Eun-Kyung Moon, Yeonchul Hong, Dong-Il Chung, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2015; 159: 46. CrossRef Caspase-like proteins: Acanthamoeba castellanii metacaspase and Dictyostelium discoideum paracaspase, what are their functions? Entsar Saheb, Wendy Trzyna, John Bush Journal of Biosciences.2014; 39(5): 909. CrossRef Helminth parasites of fish and shellfish from the Santa Gilla Lagoon in southern Sardinia, Italy J. Culurgioni, A. Sabatini, R. De Murtas, S. Mattiucci, V. Figus Journal of Helminthology.2014; 88(04): 489. CrossRef Microarray and KOG analysis of Acanthamoeba healyi genes up-regulated by mouse-brain passage Eun-Kyung Moon, Ying-Hua Xuan, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2014; 143: 69. CrossRef Protein kinase C signaling molecules regulate encystation of Acanthamoeba Eun-Kyung Moon, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong, Hyun-Hee Kong Experimental Parasitology.2012; 132(4): 524. CrossRef Microarray Analysis of Differentially Expressed Genes between Cysts and Trophozoites ofAcanthamoeba castellanii Eun-Kyung Moon, Ying-Hua Xuan, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong, Hyun-Hee Kong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2011; 49(4): 341. CrossRef Drug target identification, validation, characterisation and exploitation for treatment of Acanthamoeba (species) infections Craig W. Roberts, Fiona L. Henriquez Experimental Parasitology.2010; 126(1): 91. CrossRef Construction of Web-Based Database for Anisakis Research Yong-Seok Lee, Moon-Ki Baek, Yong-Hun Jo, Se-Won Kang, Jae-Bong Lee, Yeon-Soo Han, Hee-Jae Cha, Hak-Sun Yu, Mee-Sun Ock Journal of Life Science.2010; 20(3): 411. CrossRef 10,438 View 59 Download Crossref Keratitis by Acanthamoeba triangularis: Report of Cases and Characterization of Isolates Ying-Hua Xuan, Byung-Suk Chung, Yeon-Chul Hong, Hyun-Hee Kong, Tae-Won Hahn, Dong-Il Chung Korean J Parasitol 2008;46(3):157-164. Published online September 20, 2008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2008.46.3.157 Abstract PDF Three Acanthamoeba isolates (KA/E9, KA/E17, and KA/E23) from patients with keratitis were identified as Acanthamoeba triangularis by analysis of their molecular characteristics, a species not previously recognized to be a corneal pathogen. Epidemiologic significance of A. triangularis as a keratopathogen in Korea has been discussed. Morphologic features of Acanthamoeba cysts were examined under a microscope with differential interference contrast (DIC) optics. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the ocular isolates KA/E9, KA/E17, and KA/E23 were digested with restriction enzymes, and the restriction patterns were compared with those of reference strains. Complete nuclear 18S and mitochondrial (mt) 16S rDNA sequences were subjected to phylogenetic analysis and species identification. mtDNA RFLP of 3 isolates showed very similar patterns to those of SH621, the type strain of A. triangularis. 16S and 18S rDNA sequence analysis confirmed 3 isolates to be A. triangularis. 18S rDNA sequence differences of the isolates were 1.3% to 1.6% and those of 16S rDNA, 0.4% to 0.9% from A. triangularis SH621. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report, confirmed by 18S and 16S rDNA sequence analysis, of keratitis caused by A. triangularis of which the type strain was isolated from human feces. Six isolates of A. triangularis had been reported from contaminated contact lens cases in south eastern Korea. 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CrossRef Anti-encystment and amoebicidal activity of Lonicera japonica Thunb. and its major constituent chlorogenic acid in vitro Tooba Mahboob, Abdul-Majid Azlan, Tian-Chye Tan, Chandramathi Samudi, Shamala Devi Sekaran, Veeranoot Nissapatorn, Christophe Wiart Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine.2016; 9(9): 866. CrossRef First report of an Acanthamoeba genotype T13 isolate as etiological agent of a keratitis in humans Anna-Lena Grün, Birthe Stemplewitz, Patrick Scheid Parasitology Research.2014; 113(6): 2395. CrossRef Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Targeting 18S Ribosomal DNA for Rapid Detection of Acanthamoeba Hye-Won Yang, Yu-Ran Lee, Noboru Inoue, Bijay Kumar Jha, Dinzouna-Boutamba Sylvatrie Danne, Hong-Kyun Kim, Junhun Lee, Youn-Kyoung Goo, Hyun-Hee Kong, Dong-Il Chung, Yeonchul Hong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2013; 51(3): 269. 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CrossRef 10,265 View 88 Download Crossref Molecular characterization of bacterial endosymbionts of Acanthamoeba isolates from infected corneas of Korean patients Ying-Hua Xuan, Hak Sun Yu, Hae Jin Jeong, Sung-Yong Seol, Dong-Il Chung, Hyun-Hee Kong Korean J Parasitol 2007;45(1):1-9. Published online March 20, 2007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2007.45.1.1 Abstract PDF The endosymbionts of 4 strains of Acanthamoeba (KA/E9, KA/E21, KA/E22, and KA/E23) isolated from the infected corneas of Korean patients were characterized via orcein stain, transmission electron microscopic examination, and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Double membrane-bound, rod-shaped endosymbionts were distributed randomly throughout both the trophozoites and cysts of each of Acanthamoeba isolates. The endosymbionts of KA/E9, KA/E22, and KA/E23 were surrounded by electron-translucent areas. No lacunae-like structures were observed in the endosymbionts of KA/E21, the bacterial cell walls of which were studded with host ribosomes. Comparative analyses of the 16S rDNA sequences showed that the endosymbionts of KA/E9, KA/E22 and KA/E23 were closely related to Caedibacter caryophilus, whereas the KA/E21 endosymbiont was assigned to the Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroides (CFB) phylum. In the 4 strains of Acanthamoeba, the hosts of the endosymbionts were identified as belonging to the Acanthamoeba castellanii complex, which corresponds to the T4 genotype. Acanthamoeba KA/E21 evidenced characteristics almost identical to those of KA/E6, with the exception of the existence of endosymbionts. The discovery of these endosymbionts from Acanthamoeba may prove essential to future studies focusing on interactions between the endosymbionts and the amoebic hosts. 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