Acanthamoeba, one of free-living amoebae (FLA), remains a high risk of direct contact with this protozoan parasite which is ubiquitous in nature and man-made environment. This pathogenic FLA can cause sight-threatening amoebic keratitis (AK) and fatal granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) though these cases may not commonly be reported in our clinical settings. Acanthamoeba has been detected from different environmental sources namely; soil, water, hot-spring, swimming pool, air-conditioner, or contact lens storage cases. The identification of Acanthamoeba is based on morphological appearance and molecular techniques using PCR and DNA sequencing for clinico-epidemiological purposes. Recent treatments have long been ineffective against Acanthamoeba cyst, novel anti-Acanthamoeba agents have therefore been extensively investigated. There are efforts to utilize synthetic chemicals, lead compounds from medicinal plant extracts, and animal products to combat Acanthamoeba infection. Applied nanotechnology, an advanced technology, has shown to enhance the anti-Acanthamoeba activity in the encapsulated nanoparticles leading to new therapeutic options. This review attempts to provide an overview of the available data and studies on the occurrence of pathogenic Acanthamoeba among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members with the aim of identifying some potential contributing factors such as distribution, demographic profile of the patients, possible source of the parasite, mode of transmission and treatment. Further, this review attempts to provide future direction for prevention and control of the Acanthamoeba infection.
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
Development of a novel encystment medium: Enhancing diagnostic potential of Acanthamoeba spp. Julalak Chuprom, Suthinee Sangkanu, Watcharapong Mitsuwan, Rachasak Boonhok, Alok K. Paul, Sonia M. Rodrigues Oliveira, Maria L. Pereira, Tajudeen O. Jimoh, Mohammed Rahmatullah, Polrat Wilairatana, Christophe Wiart, Ajoy K. Verma, Veeranoot Nissapatorn Veterinary World.2025; : 110. CrossRef
Acanthamoeba castellanii–Mediated Reduction of Interleukin‐1β Secretion and Its Association With Macrophage Autophagy Rachasak Boonhok, Wilaiwan Senghoi, Suthinee Sangkanu, Chooi Ling Lim, Matsayapan Pudla, Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Polrat Wilairatana, Tooba Mahboob, Md. Atiar Rahman, Pongsak Utaisincharoen, Poonsit Hiransai, Veeranoot Nissapatorn, Simone Carradori Scientifica.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Comparative evaluation of nano ocular delivery systems loaded pH and thermosensitive in situ gels for Acanthamoeba keratitis treatment Basant A. Abou-Taleb, Ibrahim A. Abdelwahab Scientific Reports.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Amoebicidal, anti-adhesive, and low-cytotoxic effects of Mangifera indica L. leaf extract against ocular Acanthamoeba spp.: First evidence supporting plant-based therapeutic potential Diana Mendonça, Hazel A. Tabo, Siriphorn Chimplee, Sónia M. R. Oliveira, Pattamaporn Kwankaew, Ana Paula Girol, Julieta Z. Dungca, Mazdida Sulaiman, Subha Bhassu, Muhammad Nawaz, Polrat Wilairatana, Christophe Wiart, Karma G. Dolma, Sunil Kayesth, Veerano Veterinary World.2025; : 3322. CrossRef
Azole-based compounds as potential anti-Acanthamoeba agents Balsam Qubais Saeed, Rania Hamdy, Noor Akbar, Sreedevi Edathadan Sajeevan, Naveed Ahmed Khan, Sameh S. M. Soliman RSC Medicinal Chemistry.2024; 15(5): 1578. CrossRef
In silico-based vaccine design against Naegleria fowleri causing primary amebic meningoencephalitis Vityala Yethindra, Sai Kiran Ramanujam, Dharani Mummadi, Krishna Priya Kanteti, Srilaxmi Vityala, Ujwala Damineni Indian Journal of Pharmacology.2024; 56(2): 148. CrossRef
Unfurling a case of encephalitis with Acanthamoeba after a near-drowning event Debarup Das, Kuntal Biswas, Kokila Banerjee, Bhaswar Bhattacharya, Arijit Roy, Sumeeta Khurana, Atanu Biswas Rare.2024; 2: 100035. CrossRef
A Comprehensive Review on Acanthamoeba Keratitis: An Overview of Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Therapeutic Strategies Diksha Garg, Sachin Daigavane Cureus.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
First report on the long-term viability of Acanthamoeba species in unpreserved environmental freshwater samples stored at room temperature Frederick R. Masangkay, Fausto C. Rona IV, Angel Jasmine G. Poricallan, Raphael Louis M. Padua, Marielle Sabina S. Reyes, Justine Kate M. Ricacho, Monica Jane E. Samar, Maria Carmela I. Santos, Jitbanjong Tangpong, Manas Kotepui, Mark F. F. E. Padua, Giov Journal of Water and Health.2024; 22(11): 2194. CrossRef
A Narrative Review of Acanthamoeba Isolates in Malaysia: Challenges in Infection Management and Natural Therapeutic Advancements Mohammad Wisman Abdul Hamid, Roslaini Bin Abd Majid, Victor Fiezal Knight Victor Ernest, Nik Noorul Shakira Mohamed Shakrin, Firdaus Mohamad Hamzah, Mainul Haque Cureus.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Occurrence, molecular diversity and pathogenicity of
Acanthamoeba
spp. isolated from aquatic environments of Northeastern Brazil
Yrna Lorena Matos de Oliveira, Erica Tirzah Santos Lima, Marilise Brittes Rott, Roberta Pereira Miranda Fernandes, Sona Jain, Marcus Vinicius de Aragão Batista, Silvio Santana Dolabella International Journal of Environmental Health Research.2023; 33(12): 1686. CrossRef
Molecular characterisation and potential pathogenicity analysis of Acanthamoeba isolated from recreational lakes in Peninsular Malaysia Rohaya Abdul Halim, Rosnani Hanim Mohd Hussain, Shafiq Aazmi, Hasseri Halim, Naveed Ahmed Khan, Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui, Tengku Shahrul Anuar Journal of Water and Health.2023; 21(9): 1342. CrossRef
Applications of medicinal chemistry for drug discovery against Acanthamoeba infections Usman Ahmed, Ayaz Anwar, Seng‐Kai Ong, Areeba Anwar, Naveed Ahmed Khan Medicinal Research Reviews.2022; 42(1): 462. CrossRef
Phytochemical, anti-Acanthamoeba, and anti-adhesion properties of Garcinia mangostana flower as preventive contact lens solution Suthinee Sangkanu, Watcharapong Mitsuwan, Tooba Mahboob, Wilawan Mahabusarakam, Sopa Chewchanwuttiwong, Panisara Siphakdi, Tajudeen O. Jimoh, Polrat Wilairatana, Karma G. Dolma, Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Mohammed Rahmatullah, Christophe Wiart, Roghayeh No Acta Tropica.2022; 226: 106266. CrossRef
Acanthamoeba species isolated from marine water in Malaysia exhibit distinct genotypes and variable physiological properties Rosnani Hanim Mohd Hussain, Mohamed Kamel Abdul Ghani, Naveed Ahmed Khan, Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui, Tengku Shahrul Anuar Journal of Water and Health.2022; 20(1): 54. CrossRef
Report of rare genotypes of Acanthamoeba from soil source of the Payeh Maga Highland forest, North-eastern Sarawak, Malaysia Li-Li Chan, Hiu-Ching Toh, Kantiya Jaikwang, Ee-Mun Loo, Jia-Haw Wong, Yun-Khoon Liew, Kian-Huat Ong, Soo-Shen Ooi Acta Tropica.2022; 229: 106372. CrossRef
Tannic Acid-Modified Silver Nanoparticles in Conjunction with Contact Lens Solutions Are Useful for Progress against the Adhesion of Acanthamoeba spp. to Contact Lenses Marcin Padzik, Lidia Chomicz, Julita Bluszcz, Karolina Maleszewska, Jaroslaw Grobelny, David Bruce Conn, Edyta B. Hendiger Microorganisms.2022; 10(6): 1076. CrossRef
Isolation and morphological and molecular characterization of waterborne free-living amoebae: Evidence of potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba and Vahlkampfiidae in Assiut, Upper Egypt Martina M. Nageeb, Hanan E. M. Eldeek, Rasha A. H. Attia, Atef A. Sakla, Samia S. Alkhalil, Haiam Mohamed Mahmoud Farrag, Ebrahim Shokoohi PLOS ONE.2022; 17(7): e0267591. CrossRef
Prevalence of free-living amoebae in swimming pools and recreational waters, a systematic review and meta-analysis Beni Jequicene Mussengue Chaúque, Denise Leal dos Santos, Davood Anvari, Marilise Brittes Rott Parasitology Research.2022; 121(11): 3033. CrossRef
Identification of Acanthamoeba spp. from water and soil of public parks in the north of Iran M. R. Mahmoudi, M. Maleki, N. Zebardast, B. Rahmati, K. Ashrafi, M. Sharifdini, Panagiotis Karanis Journal of Water and Health.2022; 20(10): 1604. CrossRef
Oral Miltefosine as Salvage Therapy for Refractory Acanthamoeba Keratitis Praneetha Thulasi, Hajirah N. Saeed, Christopher J. Rapuano, Joshua H. Hou, Alpheus B. Appenheimer, James Chodosh, Joann J. Kang, Amber M. Morrill, Neil Vyas, Michael E. Zegans, Richard Zuckerman, Elmer Y. Tu American Journal of Ophthalmology.2021; 223: 75. CrossRef
Photolysis of sodium chloride and sodium hypochlorite by ultraviolet light inactivates the trophozoites and cysts of Acanthamoeba castellanii in the water matrix Beni J. M. Chaúque, Marilise B. Rott Journal of Water and Health.2021; 19(1): 190. CrossRef
Derivatisation of metronidazole enhances cytotoxic effect against Acanthamoeba genotype T4 isolates and leads to cytomorphological changes in trophozoites Aneta Dušeková, Mária Garajová, Miloš Lukáč, Martin Mrva Acta Tropica.2021; 216: 105830. CrossRef
Evaluation of the occurrence of pathogenic free‐living amoeba and bacteria in 20 public indoor swimming pool facilities María Reyes‐Batlle, Marta F. Gabriel, Rubén Rodríguez‐Expósito, Fátima Felgueiras, Ines Sifaoui, Zenaida Mourão, Eduardo de Oliveira Fernandes, José E. Piñero, Jacob Lorenzo‐Morales MicrobiologyOpen.2021;[Epub] CrossRef
Anti-Acanthamoeba synergistic effect of chlorhexidine and Garcinia mangostana extract or α-mangostin against Acanthamoeba triangularis trophozoite and cyst forms Suthinee Sangkanu, Watcharapong Mitsuwan, Wilawan Mahabusarakam, Tajudeen O. Jimoh, Polrat Wilairatana, Ana Paula Girol, Ajoy K. Verma, Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Mohammed Rahmatullah, Christophe Wiart, Abolghasem Siyadatpanah, Roghayeh Norouzi, Polydor Ng Scientific Reports.2021;[Epub] CrossRef
Silver Nanoparticles Conjugated with Contact Lens Solutions May Reduce the Risk of Acanthamoeba Keratitis Edyta B. Hendiger, Marcin Padzik, Inés Sifaoui, María Reyes-Batlle, Atteneri López-Arencibia, Diana Zyskowska, Marta Grodzik, Anna Pietruczuk-Padzik, Jacek Hendiger, Gabriela Olędzka, Lidia Chomicz, José E. Piñero, Jacob Lorenzo-Morales Pathogens.2021; 10(5): 583. CrossRef
Potential anti-Acanthamoeba and anti-adhesion activities of Annona muricata and Combretum trifoliatum extracts and their synergistic effects in combination with chlorhexidine against Acanthamoeba triangularis trophozoites and cysts Watcharapong Mitsuwan, Chea Sin, Samell Keo, Suthinee Sangkanu, Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Tajudeen O. Jimoh, Cristina C. Salibay, Muhammad Nawaz, Roghayeh Norouzi, Abolghasem Siyadatpanah, Christophe Wiart, Polrat Wilairatana, Polydor Ngoy Mutombo, Veeran Heliyon.2021; 7(5): e06976. CrossRef
Amoebicidal activity of Cassia angustifolia extract and its effect on Acanthamoeba triangularis autophagy-related gene expression at the transcriptional level Rachasak Boonhok, Suthinee Sangkanu, Roghayeh Norouzi, Abolghasem Siyadatpanah, Farzaneh Mirzaei, Watcharapong Mitsuwan, Nurdina Charong, Sueptrakool Wisessombat, Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Mohammed Rahmatullah, Polrat Wilairatana, Christophe Wiart, Hazel Parasitology.2021; 148(9): 1074. CrossRef
Contact lenses contamination by Acanthamoeba spp. in Upper Egypt Faten A. M. Hassan, M. E. M. Tolba, Gamal H. Abed, H. M. Omar, Sara S. Abdel-Hakeem, Mohammad Mehdi Feizabadi PLOS ONE.2021; 16(11): e0259847. CrossRef
Various brain-eating amoebae: the protozoa, the pathogenesis, and the disease Hongze Zhang, Xunjia Cheng Frontiers of Medicine.2021; 15(6): 842. CrossRef
Acanthamoeba encephalitis in immunocompetent hosts: A report of two cases Sohini Das, Karthik Gunasekaran, SitaraS. R Ajjampur, Dilip Abraham, Tina George, MAsisha Janeela, Ramya Iyadurai Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care.2020; 9(2): 1240. CrossRef
Acanthamoeba spp. monoclonal antibody against a CPA2 transporter: a promising molecular tool for acanthamoebiasis diagnosis and encystment study Michele Martha Weber-Lima, Bianca Prado-Costa, Alessandra Becker-Finco, Adriana Oliveira Costa, Philippe Billilad, Cinthia Furst, Juliana Ferreira de Moura, Larissa Magalhães Alvarenga Parasitology.2020; 147(14): 1678. CrossRef
Molecular detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in Seven Crater Lakes of Laguna, Philippines Lea D. Ballares, Frederick R. Masangkay, Joseph Dionisio, Oliver Villaflores, Maria Ruth Pineda-Cortel, Giovanni D. Milanez Journal of Water and Health.2020; 18(5): 776. CrossRef
Effectiveness and Safety of Topical Chlorhexidine and Vitamin E TPGS in the Treatment of Acanthamoeba Keratitis: A Survey on 29 Cases Ciro Caruso, Daniela Eletto, Michele Rinaldi, Luigi Pacente, Salvatore Troisi, Francesco Semeraro, Roberto dell’Omo, Ciro Costagliola Journal of Clinical Medicine.2020; 9(11): 3775. CrossRef
First
Prev
