Parasites, Hosts and Diseases

"Schistosomiasis"

Brief Communication

Changes in schistosomiasis prevalence after 2 years of an integrated intervention in the Itilima district of Tanzania: Humphrey Mazigo, Jungim Lee, Yoonho Cho, Seungman Cha, Yan Jin; Parasites Hosts Dis 2025;63(1):75-86.
Published online February 25, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/PHD.24057

Schistosomiasis remains one of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases in Tanzania. World Vision Tanzania, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health through the National Neglected Tropical Diseases Control Programme, implemented school- and community-based mass drug administrations, community-led total sanitation, and community voice and action from 2020 to 2022. This study assessed changes in the prevalence of schistosomiasis in the Itilima district of northwestern Tanzania following the implementation of these integrated interventions. A total of 1,405 students from 22 schools participated in the baseline survey in August to September 2020, and 1,320 in September 2022. Additionally, 368 adults from 8 villages participated in the baseline survey, and 401 in the endline survey. The prevalence difference was calculated to assess changes before and after the integrated interventions. We also investigated risk factors for Schistosoma haematobium infection using endline data. The prevalence difference between 2020 and 2022 was -20.0% (95% confidence interval (CI)=-22.2%–-17.7%, p<0.001) for students and -19.6% (95% CI=-22.2%–-17.7%, p<0.001) for adults. Individuals without a latrine were more likely to have schistosomiasis (adjusted odds ratio=5.9, 95% CI=1.7–21.5, p=0.01) compared to those who had a latrine. The findings indicate substantial changes in schistosomiasis prevalence in the study area following the implementation of integrated interventions. To sustain these achievements in Itilima, a multi-sectorial approach is highly recommended to integrate additional measures for eliminating schistosomiasis as a public health problem.

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Original Article

Evaluation of schistosomula lung antigen preparation and soluble egg antigen vaccines on experimental schistosomiasis mansoni: Nagwa S. M. Aly, Hye-Sook Kim, Maysa A. Eraky, Asmaa A. El Kholy, Basma T. Ali, Shin-ichi Miyoshi, Rabab E. Omar; Parasites Hosts Dis 2023;61(3):251-262.
Published online August 21, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/PHD.22154

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Schistosomiasis causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. This study aimed to assess the effect of schistosomula lung antigen preparation (SLAP) and soluble egg antigen (SEA) on a murine schistosomiasis mansoni model. Ninety laboratory-bred male Swiss albino mice were divided into 6 groups. Two doses of the vaccine were given at 2-week intervals. All mice were subcutaneously infected with 80±10 Schistosoma mansoni cercariae 2 weeks after the last vaccination dose. They were sacrificed 7 weeks post-infection. Parasitological and histopathological studies were conducted to assess the effect of inoculated antigens (single or combined). The results showed that the combination of SLAP and SEA (combination group) led to a significant reduction in worm burden (65.56%), and liver and intestine egg count (59% and 60.59%, respectively). The oogram pattern revealed a reduction in immature and mature eggs (15±0.4 and 10±0.8, respectively) and an increased number of dead eggs in the combination group (P<0.001). In terms of histopathological changes, the combination group showed notably small compact fibrocellular egg granuloma and moderate fibrosis in the liver. A high percentage of destroyed ova was observed in the intestine of the combination group. This study demonstrates for the first time the prophylactic effect of combined SLAP and SEA vaccine. The vaccine induced a significant reduction in the parasitological and pathological impacts of schistosomiasis mansoni in hepatic and intestinal tissues, making it a promising vaccine candidate for controlling schistosomiasis.

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The efficacy of cercarial antigen loaded on nanoparticles as a potential vaccine candidate in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice
Dina A. S. Elguindy, Dalia S. Ashour, Sirria M. Elmarhoumy, Dina M. El-Guindy, Howaida I. H. Ismail
Journal of Parasitic Diseases.2024; 48(2): 381. CrossRef

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Brief Communication

Implications for selecting persistent hot spots of schistosomiasis from community- and school-based surveys in Blue Nile, North Kordofan, and Sennar States, Sudan: Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed Ismail, Seungman Cha, Yan Jin, Sung-Tae Hong; Parasites Hosts Dis 2023;61(2):216-224.
Published online May 23, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/PHD.23022

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In several schistosomiasis-endemic countries, the prevalence has remained high in some areas owing to reinfection despite repeated mass drug administration (MDA) interventions; these areas are referred to as persistent hot spots. Identifying hotspots is critical for interrupting transmission. This study aimed to determine an effective means of identifying persistent hot spots. First, we investigated the differences between Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni prevalence among school-aged children (SAC) estimated by a community-based survey, for which local key informants purposively selected communities, and a randomly sampled school-based survey. A total of 6,225 individuals residing in 60 villages in 8 districts of North Kordofan, Blue Nile, or Sennar States, Sudan participated in a community-based survey in March 2018. Additionally, the data of 3,959 students attending 71 schools in the same 8 districts were extracted from a nationwide school-based survey conducted in January 2017. The community-based survey identified 3 districts wherein the prevalence of S. haematobium or S. mansoni infection among SAC was significantly higher than that determined by the randomly sampled school survey (e.g., S. haematobium in the Sennar district: 10.8% vs. 1.1%, P<0.001). At the state level, the prevalence of schistosomiasis among SAC, as determined by the community-based survey, was consistently significantly higher than that determined by the school-based survey. Purposeful selection of villages or schools based on a history of MDA, latrine coverage, open defecation, and the prevalence of bloody urine improved the ability for identifying persistent hot spots.

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Case Report

Ectopic Schistosomiasis Involving Axillary Lymph Nodes: Xia Chen, Nian’an He; Korean J Parasitol 2022;60(6):409-411.
Published online December 22, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2022.60.6.409

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Axillary lymph node schistosomiasis is a form of ectopic schistosomiasis, in which the Schistosoma adult worms or eggs are infected in the axillary lymph nodes. A 53-year-old woman visited our hospital with a small mass in the right armpit, which had been present for over 1 month. Histological examination of biopsy samples from the right axillary lymph nodes revealed granulomas containing calcified Schistosoma eggs. This is the first authentic case of ectopic schistosomiasis identified in the axillary lymph nodes.

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Brief Communication

Association Between the Prevalence of Schistosomiasis in Elementary School Students and Their Parental Occupation in Sudan: Yan Jin, Seungman Cha, Youngjin Kim, Hamdan Mustafa Hamdan, Mousab Siddig Elhag, Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed Ismail, Keon Hoon Lee, Sung-Tae Hong; Korean J Parasitol 2022;60(1):51-56.
Published online February 23, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2022.60.1.51

Global efforts to identify groups at high risk for schistosomiasis have mainly concentrated on identifying their geographical distribution. Investigations on the socioeconomic characteristics of high-risk groups are relatively scarce. This study aimed to explore the associations between schistosomiasis among students and their parents’ occupations. A nationwide cross-sectional survey was conducted targeting 105,167 students in 1,772 primary schools across Sudan in 2017. From these students, 100,726 urine and 96,634 stool samples were collected to test for Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni infection. A multi-level mixed effect analysis was used with age and sex as fixed factors, and school as a random factor. The odd ratios (ORs) of practicing open defecation among farmers’ children were almost 5 times higher than their counterparts whose parents were government officials (OR=4.97, 95% confidence intervals (CIs): 4.57-5.42, P<0.001). The ORs of contacting water bodies for watering livestock among farmers’ children were more than 4 times higher than those of children whose parents were government officials (OR=4.59, 95% CIs: 4.02-5.24, P<0.001). This study shows that schistosomiasis represents a disease of poverty and that farmers’ children constituted a high-risk group.

Citations

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Using zero-inflated and hurdle regression models to analyze schistosomiasis data of school children in the southern areas of Ghana
Kojo Nketia, Dziedzom K. de Souza, Jean Coulibaly
PLOS ONE.2024; 19(7): e0304681. CrossRef
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Schistosomiasis in Sudan: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Yousef Alsaafin, Ayman Omer, Osama Felemban, Sarra Modawi, Maydolin Ibrahim, Abdullah Mohammed, Ammar Elfaki, Ahmed Abushara, Maryam A SalahEldin
Cureus.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Identifying the risk factors of schistosomiasis in Indonesia
Christine Christine, Herlina Susanto Sunuh, Fellysca Veronica Margareth Politon, Diana Vanda Daturara Doda
Healthcare in Low-resource Settings.2023;[Epub] CrossRef

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Original Articles

Population Dynamics of Intermediate-Host Snails in the White Nile River, Sudan: A Year-Round Observational Descriptive Study: Hassan A. H. A. Ismail, Abed el Aziz A. el R. M. Ahmed, Young-Ha Lee, Mousab Siddig Elhag, Youngjin Kim, Seungman Cha, Yan Jin; Korean J Parasitol 2021;59(2):121-129.
Published online April 22, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2021.59.2.121

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We aimed to explore the population dynamics of snail in 3 sites of the White Nile in Sudan. More specifically, we aimed to investigate the annual patterns of snail populations that act as intermediate hosts of schistosomes and monthly snail infection rates and ecological characteristics presumably related to snail populations. We collected snails for 1 year monthly at 3 different shore sites in the vicinity of El Shajara along the White Nile river in Khartoum State, Sudan. In addition, we measured air and water temperatures, water turbidities, vegetation coverages, and water depths and current speeds. Most of the collected snails were Biomphalaria pfeifferi and Bulinus truncatus. The population densities of snails and their infection rates varied across survey sites. The collected snails liberated S. mansoni and S. haematobium cercariae as well as Amphistome and Echinostome cercariae. Infected snails were found during March-June. The ecological characteristics found to be associated with the absence of snails population were: high turbidity, deep water, low vegetation coverage (near absence of vegetation), high water temperature, and high current speed. To our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study of the snail population and ecological characteristics in the main basin of the White Nile river.

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Seasonal distribution and cercarial shedding of Bulinus spp. snails: Implications for urogenital schistosomiasis control in the Simiyu Region, northwestern Tanzania
Nyanda C. Justine, Humphrey D. Mazigo, Antje Fuss, Bonnie L. Webster, Eveline T. Konje, Klaus Brehm, Andreas Mueller
Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases.2025; 7: 100248. CrossRef
Freshwater snail-borne parasitic diseases in Africa
Papa Mouhamadou Gaye, Souleymane Doucouré, Doudou Sow, Cheikh Sokhna, Stéphane Ranque
Tropical Medicine and Health.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Abundance, Distribution, and Diversity of Freshwater Snail and Prevalences of Their Infection by Cercaria of Fasciola gigantica and Schistosoma spp at Mayo-Vreck River, Far North Region of Cameroon
Augustin Siama, Serges Eteme Enama, Justin Kalmobe, Samuel Abah, Angele Foutchou, Alexandre Michel Njan Nloga, Pedro P. Chieffi
Journal of Tropical Medicine.2023; 2023: 1. CrossRef
Variation in water contact behaviour and risk of Schistosoma mansoni (re)infection among Ugandan school-aged children in an area with persistent high endemicity
Suzan C. M. Trienekens, Christina L. Faust, Fred Besigye, Lucy Pickering, Edridah M. Tukahebwa, Janet Seeley, Poppy H. L. Lamberton
Parasites & Vectors.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
The Life Histories of Intermediate Hosts and Parasites of Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni in the White Nile River, Sudan
Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed Ismail, Abed el Aziz Abed el Rahim Mohamed Ahmed, Seungman Cha, Yan Jin
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2022; 19(3): 1508. CrossRef
Contrasting epidemiology of urogenital schistosomiasis among pastoral communities surrounding three Ramsar wetland in Nigeria
O. G. Ajakaye, A. G. Dagona, A. G. Haladu, A. Ombugadu, M. P. Lapang, E. E. Enabulele
Journal of Parasitic Diseases.2022; 46(3): 637. CrossRef
Distribution and seasonal abundance of Biomphalaria snails and their infection status with Schistosoma mansoni in and around Lake Tana, northwest Ethiopia
Tamirat Hailegebriel, Endalkachew Nibret, Abaineh Munshea
Scientific Reports.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Transmission Dynamics of Schistosoma haematobium among School-Aged Children: A Cohort Study on Prevalence, Reinfection and Incidence after Mass Drug Administration in the White Nile State of Sudan
Yan Jin, Young-Ha Lee, Seungman Cha, In-Uk Choi, Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed Ismail, Mousab Siddig Elhag, Sung-Tae Hong
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2021; 18(21): 11537. CrossRef

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Plasma D-dimer Can Effectively Predict the Prospective Occurrence of Ascites in Advanced Schistosomiasis Japonica Patients: Xiaoying Wu, Jianwei Ren, Zulu Gao, Yun Xu, Huiqun Xie, Tingfang Li, Yanhua Cheng, Fei Hu, Hongyun Liu, Zhihong Gong, Jinyi Liang, Jia Shen, Zhen Liu, Feng Wu, Xi Sun, Zhongzheng Niu, An Ning; Korean J Parasitol 2017;55(2):167-174.
Published online April 30, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2017.55.2.167

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China still has more than 30,000 patients of advanced schistosomiasis while new cases being reported consistently. D-dimer is a fibrin degradation product. As ascites being the dominating symptom in advanced schistosomiasis, the present study aimed to explore a prediction model of ascites with D-dimer and other clinical easy-achievable indicators. A case-control study nested in a prospective cohort was conducted in schistosomiasis-endemic area of southern China. A total of 291 patients of advanced schistosomiasis were first investigated in 2013 and further followed in 2014. Information on clinical history, physical examination, and abdominal ultrasonography, including the symptom of ascites was repeatedly collected. Result showed 44 patients having ascites. Most of the patients’ ascites were confined in the kidney area with median area of 20 mm². The level of plasma D-dimer and pertinent liver function indicators were measured at the initial investigation in 2013. Compared with those without ascites, cases with ascites had significantly higher levels of D-dimer (0.71±2.44 μg/L vs 0.48±2.12 μg /L, P=0.005), as well ALB (44.5 vs 46.2, g/L) and Type IV collagen (50.04 vs 44.50 μg/L). Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses indicated a moderate predictive value of D-dimer by its own area under curve (AUC) of 0.64 (95% CI: 0.54-0.73) and the cutoff value as 0.81 μg/L. Dichotomized by the cutoff level, D-dimer along with other categorical variables generated a prediction model with AUC of 0.76 (95% CI: 0.680.89). Risks of patients with specific characteristics in the prediction model were summarized. Our study suggests that the plasma D-dimer level is a reliable predictor for incident ascites in advanced schistosomiasis japonica patients.

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Machine learning algorithms to predict the 1 year unfavourable prognosis for advanced schistosomiasis
Honglin Jiang, Weicheng Deng, Jie Zhou, Guanghui Ren, Xinting Cai, Shengming Li, Benjiao Hu, Chunlin Li, Ying Shi, Na Zhang, Yingyan Zheng, Yue Chen, Qingwu Jiang, Yibiao Zhou
International Journal for Parasitology.2021; 51(11): 959. CrossRef
Derivation and external validation of a model to predict 2-year mortality risk of patients with advanced schistosomiasis after discharge
Guo Li, Shanshan Huang, Lifei Lian, Xiaoyan Song, Wenzhe Sun, Jinfeng Miao, Bohan Li, Yong Yuan, Shengfan Wu, Xiaoyan Liu, Zhou Zhu
EBioMedicine.2019; 47: 309. CrossRef

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Articles from Symposium on Controls of NTDs around Lake Victoria, Tanzania

Improved Perceptions and Practices Related to Schistosomiasis and Intestinal Worm Infections Following PHAST Intervention on Kome Island, North-Western Tanzania: Joseph R. Mwanga, Godfrey M. Kaatano, Julius E. Siza, Su Young Chang, Yunsuk Ko, Cyril M. Kullaya, Jackson Nsabo, Keeseon S. Eom, Tai-Soon Yong, Jong-Yil Chai, Duk-Young Min, Han-Jong Rim, John M. Changalucha; Korean J Parasitol 2015;53(5):561-569.
Published online October 29, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2015.53.5.561

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Schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections are widespread diseases of public health importance in Tanzania. A study on perceptions and practices related to schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections was undertaken among a community population of Kome Island in Sengerema District, north-western Tanzania, where intestinal schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections are endemic. Schistosomiasis and intestinal worm-related perceptions and practices were assessed before and 3 years after implementation of a participatory hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST) intervention as a control measure. Data were obtained from baseline and post-intervention knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) questionnaire surveys conducted twice in 2009 and 2012 among 82 individuals aged ≥15 years. We found significant increases in respondents’ knowledge of the cause, transmission, symptoms, health consequences, and prevention of schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections after PHAST intervention. The increase in respondents’ knowledge on almost all aspects of the said infections was translated into actions to control schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections. This has not been achieved by chance, but due to well-designed and locally-adapted PHAST intervention. We conclude that despite criticisms, PHAST approach is still useful in empowering communities to control water, sanitation, and hygiene related infectious diseases such as schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections.

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Effects of an integrated intervention on schistosomiasis prevalence in a rural area of Tanzania
Yoonho Cho, Jungim Lee, Humphrey Deogratias Mazigo, Leah Elisha Salamba, Seungman Cha, Sutas Suttiprapa
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Awareness, Attitude, and Perception of Port Health to Customers and Other Regulatory Authorities at Rusumo OSBP
Masunga Simon Tryphone, Kassim Moh’d Ali, Edward Joseph Macha
European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences.2024; 2(5): 676. CrossRef
Contextual factors influencing schistosomiasis treatment and identification of delivery platforms for arpraziquantel in hard-to-reach areas and populations in Homa Bay County, Kenya
Phyllis Munyiva Isaiah, Doris Osei Afriyie, Mary Maghanga, Donna Obare Ogeto, Mary Amuyunzu Nyamongo, Peter Steinmann, Julia Robinson
PLOS Global Public Health.2024; 4(12): e0004035. CrossRef
Subclinical vascular damage in Schistosoma spp. endemic regions
Valeria Silvestri, Mwanahawa Idavas Mshana, Vivian Mushi, Witness M. Bonaventura, Nyanda C. Justine, Clemence Kinabo, Abdallah Zacharia, Giuseppe La Torre, Billy Ngasala
Vasa.2023; 52(4): 275. CrossRef
Behaviour change interventions for the control and elimination of schistosomiasis: A systematic review of evidence from low- and middle-income countries
Carlos A. Torres-Vitolas, Suzan C. M. Trienekens, Willemijn Zaadnoordijk, Anouk N. Gouvras, Alberto Novaes Ramos
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.2023; 17(5): e0011315. CrossRef
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Joshua V Garn, Jennifer L Wilkers, Ashley A Meehan, Lisa M Pfadenhauer, Jacob Burns, Rubina Imtiaz, Matthew C Freeman
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
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May N. Sule, Justina Mosha, Teshome Emana Soboka, Safari M. Kinung’hi, Chrysoula Sfynia, Kamran Rafiq, Alex Dower, Marianne Comparet, Emma Bewley, Teckla Angelo, Feleke Zewge Beshah, Michael R. Templeton
Parasites & Vectors.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Molecular Detection of Haplorchis pumilio Eggs in Schoolchildren, Kome Island, Lake Victoria, Tanzania
Hyejoo Shin, Bong-Kwang Jung, Seungwan Ryoo, Sooji Hong, Heonwoo Jeong, Hoo-Gn Jeoung, Sunhye Kim, Sun Kim, Min-Jae Kim, Hansol Park, Keeseon S. Eom, Godfrey M. Kaatano, Jong-Yil Chai
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Blood Flukes and Arterial Damage: A Review of Aneurysm Cases in Patients with Schistosomiasis
Valeria Silvestri, Vivian Mushi, Mwanahawa Idavas Mshana, Witness M. Bonaventura, Nyanda C. Justine, Deodatus Sabas, Billy Ngasala, Arif Siddiqui
Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology.2022; 2022: 1. CrossRef
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Chanelle Mulopo, Moses J. Chimbari
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From the One Health Perspective: Schistosomiasis Japonica and Flooding
Su-Ying Guo, Lu Li, Li-Juan Zhang, Yin-Long Li, Shi-Zhu Li, Jing Xu
Pathogens.2021; 10(12): 1538. CrossRef
Village Response to Mass Drug Administration for Schistosomiasis in Mwanza Region, Northwestern Tanzania: Are We Missing Socioeconomic, Cultural, and Political Dimensions?
Joseph R. Mwanga, Safari M. Kinung’hi, Justina Mosha, Teckla Angelo, Jane Maganga, Carl H. Campbell
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Teckla Angelo, Safari M. Kinung’hi, Jorum Buza, Joseph R. Mwanga, Henry Curtis Kariuki, Shona Wilson
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Yi Dong, Chun-Hong Du, Yun Zhang, Li-Fang Wang, Jing Song, Ming-Shou Wu, Wen-Can Yang, Shan Lv, Xiao-Nong Zhou
Infectious Diseases of Poverty.2018;[Epub] CrossRef
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Janet Masaku, Faith Mwende, Gladys Odhiambo, Rosemary Musuva, Elizabeth Matey, Jimmy H. Kihara, Isaac G. Thuita, Doris W. Njomo, Aaron R. Jex
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Campbell Systematic Reviews.2017; 13(1): 1. CrossRef
Integrated Schistosomiasis and Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Control over Five Years on Kome Island, Tanzania
Godfrey M. Kaatano, Julius E. Siza, Joseph R. Mwanga, Duk-Yong Min, Tai-Soon Yong, Jong-Yil Chai, Yunsuk Ko, Su Young Chang, Cyril M. Kullaya, Han-Jong Rim, John M. Changalucha, Keeseon S. Eom
The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2015; 53(5): 535. CrossRef

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Improved Socio-Economic Status of a Community Population Following Schistosomiasis and Intestinal Worm Control Interventions on Kome Island, North-Western Tanzania: Joseph R. Mwanga, Godfrey M. Kaatano, Julius E. Siza, Su Young Chang, Yunsuk Ko, Cyril M. Kullaya, Jackson Nsabo, Keeseon S. Eom, Tai-Soon Yong, Jong-Yil Chai, Duk-Young Min, Han-Jong Rim, John M. Changalucha; Korean J Parasitol 2015;53(5):553-559.
Published online October 29, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2015.53.5.553

Abstract
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Research on micro-level assessment of the changes of socio-economic status following health interventions is very scarce. The use of household asset data to determine wealth indices is a common procedure for estimating socio-economic position in resource poor settings. In such settings information about income is usually lacking, and the collection of individual consumption or expenditure data would require in-depth interviews, posing a considerable risk of bias. In this study, we determined the socio-economic status of 213 households in a community population in an island in the north-western Tanzania before and 3 year after implementation of a participatory hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST) intervention to control schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections. We constructed a household 'wealth index' based housing construction features (e.g., type of roof, walls, and floor) and durable assets ownership (e.g., bicycle, radio, etc.). We employed principal components analysis and classified households into wealth quintiles. The study revealed that asset variables with positive factor scores were associated with higher socio-economic status, whereas asset variables with negative factor scores were associated with lower socio-economic status. Overall, households which were rated as the poorest and very poor were on the decrease, whereas those rated as poor, less poor, and the least poor were on the increase after PHAST intervention. This decrease/increase was significant. The median shifted from -0.4376677 to 0.5001073, and the mean from -0.2605787 (SD; 2.005688) to 0.2605787 (SD; 1.831199). The difference in socio-economic status of the people between the 2 phases was highly statistically significant (P<0.001). We argue that finding of this study should be treated with caution as there were other interventions to control schistosomiasis and intestinal worm infections which were running concurrently on Kome Island apart from PHAST intervention.

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Estimation of household level variation in per capita calorie intake by measures of economic well‐being of the household in India
Junaid Khan, Sanjay K. Mohanty
Tropical Medicine & International Health.2025; 30(6): 481. CrossRef
The use of non-pharmaceutical interventions for the prevention and control of schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review
Buba Manjang, Elizabeth A. Ochola, Susan J. Elliott
Global Public Health.2022; 17(3): 469. CrossRef
Socioeconomic determinants of Schistosoma mansoni infection using multiple correspondence analysis among rural western Kenyan communities: Evidence from a household-based study
Isaiah Omondi, Maurice R. Odiere, Fredrick Rawago, Pauline N. Mwinzi, Carl Campbell, Rosemary Musuva, Mary Hamer Hodges
PLOS ONE.2021; 16(6): e0253041. CrossRef

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Integrated Schistosomiasis and Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Control over Five Years on Kome Island, Tanzania: Godfrey M. Kaatano, Julius E. Siza, Joseph R. Mwanga, Duk-Yong Min, Tai-Soon Yong, Jong-Yil Chai, Yunsuk Ko, Su Young Chang, Cyril M. Kullaya, Han-Jong Rim, John M. Changalucha, Keeseon S. Eom; Korean J Parasitol 2015;53(5):535-543.
Published online October 29, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2015.53.5.535

Abstract
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Integrated control strategies are important for sustainable control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis, despite their challenges for their effective implementation. With the support of Good Neighbors International in collaboration with National Institute of Medical Research, Mwanza, Tanzania, integrated control applying mass drug administration (MDA), health education using PHAST, and improved safe water supply has been implemented on Kome Island over 5 years for controlling schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). Baseline surveys for schistosomiasis and STHs was conducted before implementation of any integrated control strategies, followed by 4 cross-sectional follow-up surveys on randomly selected samples of schoolchildren and adults in 10 primary schools and 8 villages, respectively, on Kome islands. Those follow-up surveys were conducted for impact evaluation after introduction of control strategies interventions in the study area. Five rounds of MDA have been implemented from 2009 along with PHAST and improved water supply with pumped wells as other control strategies for complementing MDA. A remarkable steady decline of schistosomiasis and STHs was observed from 2009 to 2012 with significant trends in their prevalence decline, and thereafter infection rate has remained at a low sustainable control. By the third follow-up survey in 2012, Schistosoma mansoni infection prevalence was reduced by 90.5% and hookworm by 93.3% among schoolchildren while in adults the corresponding reduction was 83.2% and 56.9%, respectively. Integrated control strategies have successfully reduced S. mansoni and STH infection status to a lower level. This study further suggests that monitoring and evaluation is a crucial component of any large-scale STH and schistosomiasis intervention.

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Case Report

Cerebellar Schistosomiasis: A Case Report with Clinical Analysis: Heng Wan, Ding Lei, Qing Mao; Korean J Parasitol 2009;47(1):53-56.
Published online March 12, 2009; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2009.47.1.53

Abstract
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The authors report here a rare case of cerebellar schistosomiasis identified by pathological diagnosis, lacking extracranial involvement. The clinical symptoms included headache, dizziness, and nausea. Studies in blood were normal and no parasite eggs were detected in stool. Computed tomography of brains showed hypodense signal, and magnetic resonance imaging showed isointense signal on T1-weighted images, hyperintense signal on T2-weighted images, and intensely enhancing nodules in the right cerebellum after intravenous administration of gadolinium. A high-grade glioma was suspected, and an operation was performed. The pathologic examination of the biopsy specimen revealed schistosomal granulomas scattered within the parenchyma of the cerebellum. The definitive diagnosis was cerebellar schistosomiasis japonica. A standard use of praziquantel and corticosteroid drugs was applied, and the prognosis was good. When the pattern of imaging examinations is present as mentioned above, a diagnosis of brain schistosomiasis should be considered.

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