Toxoplasma gondii is a neurotropic apicomplexan protozoan estimated to affect approximately 30% of the global population. In this review, we aimed to examine scientific evidence on the potential role of T. gondii infection in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder. This review summarizes the current literature exploring the possible association between T. gondii and ASD. Findings indicate that toxoplasmosis may contribute to host alterations, including the induction of humoral and cellular immune responses, production of various cytokines, and changes in neurotransmitter levels (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and glutamate), as well as the activation of enzymes such as indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, which may influence the pathophysiology of ASD. In conclusion, this review suggests that T. gondii infection could act as a potential risk factor for ASD. However, further intensive studies are necessary to clarify the role of this parasite in the etiology and progression of ASD. This review is anticipated to stimulate further studies aimed at understanding and potentially reducing the burden of neurodevelopmental disorders worldwide.
Only a few cases of Acanthocephala infections have been reported in humans, and Moniliformis moniliformis is the most common species around the world. We report here a case of infection with M. moniliformis, which passed in the stool of a 2-year-old girl in Iran. The patient had abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and facial edema. According to her mother, the patient had habit of eating dirt and once a cockroach was discovered in her mouth. In stool examination, eggs of M. moniliformis were not found. She was treated with levamisole and the clinical symptoms reduced within 2 weeks. The specimen contained 2 pieces of a female worm with a total length of 148 mm lacking the posterior end. The spiral musculature of the proboscis receptacle and the shape of the trunk allowed its generic determination. Previously 2 cases of M. moniliformis infection were reported in Iran. This is the 3rd case of M. moniliformis infection in Iran.
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genomes of the zoonotic parasites Bolbosoma nipponicum and Corynosoma villosum (Acanthocephala: Polymorphida) and the molecular phylogeny of the order Polymorphida Dai-Xuan Li, Rui-Jia Yang, Hui-Xia Chen, Tetiana A. Kuzmina, Terry R. Spraker, Liang Li Parasitology.2024; 151(1): 45. CrossRef
Acanthocephala Species of Mammals in Türkiye and A New Species Record from Foxes Mehmet Öztürk, Şinasi Umur Turkish Journal of Parasitology.2024; 48(1): 66. CrossRef
A systematic review and meta-analysis on prevalence of gastrointestinal helminthic infections in rodents of Iran: An emphasis on zoonotic aspects Yazdan Hamzavi, Mohammad Taghi Khodayari, Afshin Davari, Mohammad Reza Shiee, Seyed Ahmad Karamati, Saber Raeghi, Hadis Jabarmanesh, Helia Bashiri, Arezoo Bozorgomid Heliyon.2024; 10(11): e31955. CrossRef
First record of Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) (Moniliformida: Moniliformidae) in mice of the genus Apodemus kaup, 1829 (Rodentia: Muridae) in Serbia Božana Tošić, Borislav Čabrilo, Milan Miljević, Marija Rajičić, Branka Bajić, Ivana Budinski, Olivera Bjelić-Čabrilo Kragujevac Journal of Science.2024; 46(1): 163. CrossRef
Helminthofauna Diversity in Synanthropic Rodents of the Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy): Implications for Public Health and Rodent Control Filippo Maria Dini, Carlotta Mazzoni Tondi, Roberta Galuppi Veterinary Sciences.2024; 11(11): 585. CrossRef
Paleoparasitology of Human Acanthocephalan Infection: A Review and New Case from Bonneville Estates Rockshelter, Nevada, U.S.A. Katelyn McDonough, Taryn Johnson, Ted Goebel, Karl Reinhard, Marion Coe Journal of Parasitology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Molecular Characterization of a New Moniliformis sp. From a Plateau Zokor (Eospalax fontanierii baileyi) in China Guo-Dong Dai, Hong-Bin Yan, Li Li, Lin-Sheng Zhang, Zhan-Long Liu, Sheng-Zhi Gao, John Asekhaen Ohiolei, Yao-Dong Wu, Ai-Min Guo, Bao-Quan Fu, Wan-Zhong Jia Frontiers in Microbiology.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Morphological and Molecular Descriptions of Macracanthorhynchus ingens (Acanthocephala: Oligacanthorhynchidae) Collected from Hedgehogs in Iran Mohsen Najjari, Amir Tavakoli Kareshk, Mohammad Darvishi, Gholamreza Barzegar, Majid Dusti, Mohammad Hasan Namaei, Ebrahim Shafaie, Rahmat Solgi, Payam Behzadi Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases.2022; 2022: 1. CrossRef
Morphological characterization of Moniliformis moniliformis isolated from an Iraqi patient Amal Khudair Khalaf, Baydaa Furhan Swadi, Hossein Mahmoudvand Journal of Parasitic Diseases.2021; 45(1): 128. CrossRef
Human Acanthocephaliasis: a Thorn in the Side of Parasite Diagnostics Blaine A. Mathison, Ninad Mehta, Marc Roger Couturier, Romney M. Humphries Journal of Clinical Microbiology.2021;[Epub] CrossRef
Morphological and genetic description ofMoniliformis necromysisp. n. (Archiacanthocephala) from the wild rodentNecromys lasiurus(Cricetidae: Sigmondontinae) in Brazil A.P.N. Gomes, N.A. Costa, R. Gentile, R.V. Vilela, A. Maldonado Journal of Helminthology.2020;[Epub] CrossRef
Risk factors for different intestinal pathogens among patients with traveler's diarrhea: A retrospective analysis at a German travel clinic (2009–2017) Thomas Theo Brehm, Marc Lütgehetmann, Egbert Tannich, Marylyn M. Addo, Ansgar W. Lohse, Thierry Rolling, Christof D. Vinnemeier Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease.2020; 37: 101706. CrossRef
Zoonotic Gastrointestinal Helminths in Rodent Communities in Southern Guatemala Wendy C. Hernández, David Morán, Federico Villatoro, Manuel Rodríguez, Danilo Álvarez Journal of Parasitology.2020; 106(3): 341. CrossRef
Helminth fauna of small mammals from public parks and urban areas in Bangkok Metropolitan with emphasis on community ecology of infection in synanthropic rodents Yossapong Paladsing, Kittiyaporn Boonsri, Wipanont Saesim, Bangon Changsap, Urusa Thaenkham, Nathamon Kosoltanapiwat, Piengchan Sonthayanon, Alexis Ribas, Serge Morand, Kittipong Chaisiri Parasitology Research.2020; 119(11): 3675. CrossRef
Endoparasites of Small Mammals in Edo State, Nigeria: Public Health Implications Clement Isaac, Benjamin Igho Igbinosa, John Asekhaen Ohiolei, Catherine Eki Osimen The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2018; 56(1): 93. CrossRef
The first finding of Moniliformis moniliformis (Acanthocephala, Moniliformidae) in Belarus V. V. Shimalov Journal of Parasitic Diseases.2018; 42(2): 327. CrossRef
Rodent-borne diseases and their public health importance in Iran Mohammad Hasan Rabiee, Ahmad Mahmoudi, Roohollah Siahsarvie, Boris Kryštufek, Ehsan Mostafavi, Peter J. Krause PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.2018; 12(4): e0006256. CrossRef
An unexpected case of a Japanese wild boar (Sus scrofa leucomystax) infected with the giant thorny-headed worm (Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus) on the mainland of Japan (Honshu) Koichiro Kamimura, Kenzo Yonemitsu, Ken Maeda, Seiho Sakaguchi, Aogu Setsuda, Antonio Varcasia, Hiroshi Sato Parasitology Research.2018; 117(7): 2315. CrossRef
Repertory of eukaryotes (eukaryome) in the human gastrointestinal tract: taxonomy and detection methods I. Hamad, D. Raoult, F. Bittar Parasite Immunology.2016; 38(1): 12. CrossRef
Potentially Zoonotic Helminthiases of Murid Rodents from the Indo-Chinese Peninsula: Impact of Habitat and the Risk of Human Infection Kittipong Chaisiri, Praphaiphat Siribat, Alexis Ribas, Serge Morand Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.2015; 15(1): 73. CrossRef
Acanthocephalan infection probably associated with cockroach exposure in an infant with failure-to-thrive Joel M. Andres, Joan E. English, Ellis C. Greiner Pediatric Infectious Disease.2014; 6(2): 63. CrossRef
Bacterial load of German cockroach (Blattella germanica) found in hospital environment Taha Menasria, Fatima Moussa, Souad El-Hamza, Samir Tine, Rochdi Megri, Haroun Chenchouni Pathogens and Global Health.2014; 108(3): 141. CrossRef
Moniliformis moniliformis Infection in Two Florida Toddlers Allison F. Messina, Frederick J. Wehle, Si Intravichit, Kenneth Washington Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal.2011; 30(8): 726. CrossRef
Parasitism of Prehistoric Humans and Companion Animals from Antelope Cave, Mojave County, Northwest Arizona Martín H. Fugassa, Karl J. Reinhard, Keith L. Johnson, Scott L. Gardner, Mônica Vieira, Adauto Araújo Journal of Parasitology.2011; 97(5): 862. CrossRef
Effectiveness of Various Anthelmintics in the Treatment of Moniliformiasis in Experimentally Infected Wistar Rats Dennis J. Richardson, Cheryl D. Brink Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.2011; 11(8): 1151. CrossRef
Imaging Features of Pediatric Pentastomiasis Infection: a Case Report Can Lai, Xi Qun Wang, Long Lin, De Chun Gao, Hong Xi Zhang, Yi Ying Zhang, Yin Bao Zhou Korean Journal of Radiology.2010; 11(4): 480. CrossRef
An Overview of German Cockroach, Blattella germanica, Studies Conducted in Iran Hassan Nasirian Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences.2010; 13(22): 1077. CrossRef
The present status of human helminthic diseases in Iran M. B. Rokni Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology.2008; 102(4): 283. CrossRef
First
Prev
